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Vitamins and minerals are substances contained in our food that help our body function properly. Кidneys play an important role in maintaining bone strength by balancing the levels of phosphorus and calcium in the blood. Phosphorus is the second most common mineral in the human body, with approximately 85 percent of it found in bones. It is key to the water-electrolyte balance in the body and has extremely important functions for the formation of healthy bones and teeth. It is an integral part of the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the main structure that stores energy in the body, in the structure of DNA and RNA molecules, as well as in the formation of cell membranes.

Phosphorus is absorbed in the small intestine and stored in the bones. It is absorbed by the intestinal epithelium and its homeostasis depends on the kidneys. Therefore, disturbances in phosphate levels are most often due to disturbances in renal function. It is recommended that healthy adults receive between 800 mg and 1200 mg of phosphorus each day. Damaged kidneys do not eliminate enough phosphorus in the urine, which increases the levels of phosphorus in the blood – called hyperphosphatemia.

Because phosphorus is abundant in most foods, its deficiency is rare. Its high content in the blood is more common. Due to the delicate balance between phosphorus and calcium that needs to be maintained, consuming too much phosphorus without adequate dietary calcium intake can have negative consequences.

Phosphorus, calcium, vitamin D and parathyroid hormone (PTH) and their interaction with the kidneys play a role in controlling the level of phosphorus in the blood.

When the kidneys are functioning properly, they maintain phosphorus and calcium in balance in the blood. The kidneys also convert vitamin D into an active hormone (calcitriol), which helps increase the absorption of calcium from the gut into the bloodstream. When the level of calcium in the blood is low, the parathyroid glands (four small glands in the neck) produce more PTH. This causes calcium to be drawn from the bones into the bloodstream. Elevated levels of parathyroid hormone can cause bone problems called renal osteodystrophy.

When there is a kidney problem, high levels of phosphorus in the blood (hyperphosphatemia) are a problem for people with stage 4 and 5 kidney disease, especially stage 5 (also known as end-stage kidney disease or ESRD).

Human body is composed mainly of water, with the help of which oxygen, nutrients and biochemicals are transferred from one place to another. The environment in our body can be alkaline or acidic, which is measured through a decimal scale called pH. When the Ph ratio is from 1.0 to 6.9 is determined as acidic, when 7.0 is neutral and at values ​​from 7.1 to 14 it is alkaline.

As water occupies about 60% of the total weight of the human body, pH levels affect all functions of the body and is often a factor determining overall health condition. An unbalanced pH level is an indicator of too acidic or too alkaline environment for a long period of time. This is a factor in the development of certain degenerative diseases, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer and overweight.

Because of the fact that kidneys maintain the levels of electrolytes in our body – those of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium, lowering or raising the pH can lead to crystallization of salts in the urine, which results in formation of stones or grit in the bladder and the kidneys.

The food we eat is also alkaline or acidic. According to health experts, acidic foods, those with a lower pH, can make us sick, while alkaline foods, with a higher pH, have a beneficial effect on the body.

For example, fresh fruits and vegetables are alkaline and their consumption prevents the formation of plaque on blood vessels, stops the accumulation of calcium in the urine and the formation of kidney stones.

In general, a diet high in vegetables and fruits, complete with calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc and other alkalizing minerals, can help to achieve a balanced pH of the body.

Limiting the consumption of acidic foods can help maintain bone density, prevent the formation of kidney stones and even reduce the symptoms of acid reflux. Some acidic foods include refined sugar, hydrogenated fats, dairy products, animal fats, alcohol, coffee, meat, bread and antibiotics.

Through a pH scale it is easy to determine whether the food we consume is acidic or alkaline. By this way, low-pH foods could be easily eliminated from our menu instated of the consumption of healthier alkaline foods, in order to balance the pH levels and follow a healthy diet and habits.

The adrenal glands are two in number, located at the apex of the kidneys, composed of two separate parts. They are part of the human endocrine system, producing hormones necessary for the normal functioning of the body. The adrenal cortex – the outer part of the gland – produces vital hormones such as cortisol (which helps regulate metabolism and helps the body respond to stress) and aldosterone (which helps control blood pressure). The medulla of the adrenal gland – the inner part of the gland – produces non-essential (non-life-sustaining) hormones, such as adrenaline (which helps the body respond to stress).

Anatomy of the adrenal glands

The adrenal glands are triangular in shape, about 1.5 inches high and 3 inches long. They are located on top of each kidney. Each adrenal gland consists of two separate structures – the outer part – the adrenal cortex and the inner part, known as the adrenal medulla.

Adrenal hormones

The adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla have many different functions. One of the main differences between them is that the hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are vital and those secreted by the adrenal medulla are not.

What are the symptoms of adrenal disorders?

Symptoms of adrenal disorders may include:

dizziness

excessive fatigue

sweating

nausea and vomiting

low blood sugar

low blood pressure, also known as hypotension

dark spots on the skin

muscle and joint pain

weight gain or loss

At the beginning, symptoms of adrenal disorders do not make an impression. But, over time, they usually manifest themselves with greater force. If you periodically experience any of these health problems, it is best to consult a doctor.

Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis or kidney stone disease) are small deposits that build up in the kidneys. The disease could be found accidentally (when there is no pain or crisis) by X-ray of the abdominal area or by ultrasound of the abdominal organs. Kidney stones vary in shape, size and number, ranging in size from a few millimeters to 5-6 cm.

The clinical picture in patients with kidney stones is different and depends on the size and location of the stone itself. Some patients have complaints of dull, slight pain in the lower back, which is not connected with physical activity or body position. In others, kidney stones are presented by changes in the color of urine or frequent urinary tract infections.

Nephrolithiasis may be asymptomatic (without discomfort to the patient). Renal colic is the most common clinical appearance of kidney stone disease, and it occurs most often when a stone begins to move down through the narrowest part of the urinary system.

Types of kidney stones

Very often kidney stones have a mixed chemical composition and are varied in shape and color. Some of them are:

• Calcium oxalate – the most common kidney stones. The main reasons for their formation are: increased absorption of calcium in the small intestine from food, increased excretion of calcium from bones, hyperparathyroidism, vitamin D intoxication, dehydration, taking certain medications, increased intake of oxalates with food
• Calcium phosphate stones
• Struvite stones – they are formed in frequent bacterial infections of the urinary tract
• Urate stones (uric acid stones) – formed by increased urinary acid excretion in the urine and in people who do not drink enough fluids

The nephron, the functional unit of the kidneys, is responsible for removing waste from the body. Each kidney is made up of over one million nephrons, which intersperse the renal cortex, giving it a granular appearance.

It is a microscopic tubular formation that consists of a renal (Malpighian) body and a curved tubule. The Malpighian body itself consists of a capillary ball called a glomerulus and the enveloping capsule, also called a Baumann capsule.

There are three main processes in the nephron: filtration, back-suction, and secretion. These processes are extremely important for maintaining the internal fluid environment and the alkaline-acid balance in the body. During glomerular filtration, water and particles dissolved in it and leave the vascular system. After that they enter the space between the two leaves of the Bauman capsule and from there into the lumen of the renal tubules, while filtration takes place only in the glomeruli.

There are two types of nephrons:

• cortical (their glomeruli are located in the outer 2/3 of the cortex, their loops are short and reach the outer medulla) and
• juxtamedullary (their glomeruli are located in the inner 1/3 of the cortex, their loops are long and reach the inner medulla – to the renal papillae).

Within a day, a large amount of blood passes through the kidneys, from which 170 liters of primary urine are excreted. This filtrate, passing successively through the other structures of the nephron than undergoes resorption of water and ions, as the amount of final urine is reaching an average of 1200 ml. per day.

There are two blood vessels leading from the abdominal aorta to the kidneys. The renal artery is one of these two blood vessels. The renal artery enters through the hilus, which is situated where the kidney curves inward into the concave shape. The renal artery and the renal vein pass through this hilus. The flow of oxygen-enriched blood passes through the renal artery, which the heart pumps to the kidneys in order to be filtered. After that process is finished already filtered blood is delivered back to the heart by the kidneys.

Under normal circumstances, once the renal artery enters through the hilus, it divides into two main branches, which then divide into a number of smaller arteries that supply blood to different areas of the kidney known as nephrons. The main structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. The total number of nephrons in both kidneys is about 1-2 million. A normal person’s kidneys receive approximately a quarter of the heart’s blood, or 1.2 liters of blood, every minute. The body has self-regulating mechanisms that increase or decrease blood flow to adapt to stress. Receptors located in the smooth muscle wall of the renal artery allow the arteries to dilate or contract in order to compensate for the high or low blood pressure.

Due to its vital function, which includes constant contact with toxins, the kidneys are prone to a variety of problems.

As one of the most important water-soluble non-enzymatic antioxidants, vitamin C consists of ascorbic acid and its oxidized form, dehydroascorbic acid. Vitamin C has a wide range of metabolic functions and significantly enhances cellular immunity. One of its best benefits is its ability to increase iron absorption, thus preventing problems such as iron deficiency anemia.

Compared to the general population, plasma vitamin C levels range from 30 to 60 μmol / L. Plasma levels of vitamin C in patients on hemodialysis are usually lower than in the general population, which is mainly associated with increased inflammation, anemia, oxidative stress and secondary hyperparathyroidism. Because it is excreted by the kidneys, intake above 100-200 mg / day should be restricted in patients with CKD in order to avoid oxalosis, which is an accumulation of a metabolic by-product of ascorbic acid. Many organs and tissues of the body can be affected by oxalate deposits, including the kidneys.

The supplement of vitamin C is provided by potassium-rich foods such as citrus fruits, orange juice, strawberries and broccoli, commonly limited to hemodialysis patients for whom it is important to follow a potassium-restricted diet. Loss of this vitamin is also possible during dialysis, as about a few hundred mg of it can be removed in one dialysis treatment.

Sleep disorders are extremely common among dialysis patients. The most commonly reported complaints are excessive daytime sleepiness, sleep apnea syndrome, restless legs syndrome, snoring and intermittent limb movement disorders. Clinical studies have found that sleep apnea syndrome (SAS), restless legs syndrome (RLS) and recurrent limb movement disorder (RLMD) are much more common in dialysis patients than among the general population.

Undoubtedly, these sleep problems have a significant negative impact on quality of life, as they are often mentioned as the main sources of stress.

Sleep apnea is a chronic disease that is a repeated respiratory arrest during sleep, the consequences of which is low level of oxygen in the blood. Conducted researches show that sleep apnea may lead to increased levels of cardiovascular events and to the accelerated development of atherosclerosis in patients with chronic kidney disease.
In Bulgaria, no specific studies have been conducted based on the problem of sleep disorders in patients with CKD. However, global research has shown that problems with these disorders occupy a significant part in systemic history of patients with CKD.

Uremia is a clinical syndrome characterized by elevated blood urea levels. It is based on metabolic abnormalities, fluid imbalance, electrolytes and hormones associated with the deterioration of renal function.
Uremia is more common in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), especially in the later stages of CKD or in acute kidney damage if the loss of kidney function is rapid. Urea itself has both direct and indirect toxic effects on a number of tissues.

Urea is synthesized in the liver and is the end product of protein metabolism. It is transmitted from the liver through the blood to the kidneys, where it is excreted in the urine. However, when kidney function is impaired, waste products and toxins such as creatinine and urea accumulate in the blood and cannot be effectively filtered and removed. If uremia is left untreated, this condition is life-threatening.

Symptoms:

Tingling and numbness of the hands and feet – neuropathy

General fatigue and low energy

Nausea, vomiting and loss of appetite

High blood pressure

Swelling of the ankles

Dry skin and itching

More frequent urination

Chronic kidney disease and factors leading to kidney failure and uremia are:

Congenital anomalies of the kidneys

Polycystic kidneys

Diabetic nephropathy

Congestive heart failure and arrhythmias

Chronic pyelonephritis

Kidney stones, enlarged prostate

Taking certain medications and corticosteroids

The presence of too much water in the blood and the overload of the body with fluids is called hypervolemia.

One of the main functions of our kidneys is to balance fluids in the body. However, for dialysis patients, it is unable to regulate the required ratio of salts and fluids in the body. Hypervolemia is usually the result of a health problem. However, its mild form can occur after consuming foods with too much sodium or during hormonal changes. That is why it is so important to follow a diet plan that limits the amount of sodium (salt) and fluid intake for patients with kidney problems.

The most common symptoms include:

• unexplained and rapid weight gain
• swelling of the arms and legs
• abdominal bloating
• shortness of breath

Treatment

The condition of hypervolemia is managed in several ways. The most commonly used is with diuretics (drugs that increase the amount of urine that the body produces).
It is important to note that the basis of prescribed treatment is according to the specific health problem. For example, for patients with heart failure, beside taking diuretics, additional therapy will be given.

Clinical studies have shown that in patients with severe kidney problems, diuretics do not lead to the desired result so the necessary therapy is renal replacement, such as dialysis. If you are already on dialysis, longer or more frequent dialysis procedures might be needed to remove excess fluid from your body.
People with heart, kidney or liver disease may also need a diet low in salt. This will help keeping the sodium levels within normal limits, which in turn will avoid the condition of hypervolemia.